Introduction
The Nordic countries have a long common history. Since 1971, when the Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM) was established, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden as well as the three autonomous territories, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland, have cooperated officially on various areas such as economic growth, research, environmental questions and welfare and culture in order to increase attractiveness their and to gain international strength (NCM 2011).
In the Finnish Presidency NCM programme for 2011, climate change is identified as priority and listed high on the political agenda in the Nordic Region. In this programme, the leading position of the Nordic countries and the importance of cooperation in this respect are emphasised: "We must, as a region, face up to the challenges of climate change in a pragmatic and result-oriented way. By working together, we will achieve better results and generate significant synergies" (NCM 2010, p. 9).
Adaptation to climate change has been considerd on the national level in all Nordic countries (map 1) and numerous adaptation activities are currently ongoing at the regional and local levels. However, local initiatives are often taken up by engaged individuals who lack policy input and guidance from above while the experiences gained in local processes are often not effectively linked to long-term adaptation processes (Nilsson 2010). Furthermore, apart from projects and networks, very little cooperation is in fact occur ring between national authorities due to the lack of an identified focal point for climate change adaptation work in the Nordic countries.
This paper begins by reviewing the current „state of play‟ as regards climate change adaptation work in the Nordic countries and at the Nordic level. Secondly, we discuss the questions of whether a common adaptation strategy for the Nordic Region is needed from the national points of view and the possible added value of this as well as asking who could facilitate such efforts. The paper is based on a literature review and telephone interviews conducted during March and April 2011 and complemented by e-mail communication (June 2010) with national actors from four Nordic countries and two autonomous areas.
Climate change adaptation work in the Nordic countries
The possible impacts of climate change and how they are to be tackled differ between the Nordic countries due to the existence of different geographies and economic structures. Sea level rise, changing precipitation levels and increasing storm surges (and resulting flooding) and their consequences for the built environment (e.g. infrastructure) are the most pressing issues in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland as well as Iceland. Adaptation work today in the North Atlantic Islands concentrates on the economic sectors that are dependent on natural resources such as fisheries (Greenland and Faroe Islands) and hydropower production (Iceland) which might be affected by a changing climate.
As members of the European Union, the work on climate change adaptation in Sweden, Finland (including Åland) and Denmark is influenced by EU strategic documents such as the EU White Paper „Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action‟ and the EU Baltic Sea Region Strategy in which the „Establishment of a regional adaptation strategy at the level of the Baltic Sea Region‟ is defined as a strategic action (COM 2009). Norway, Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands follow EU policies only on a voluntary basis.
Transnational and cross-border cooperation between the Nordic countries is fostered under the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) for instance within the Baltic Sea Region Programme1. So far, three projects dealing specifically with climate change adaptation involve local, regional and national partners from Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Norway - among others - in climate adaptation work: BaltCICA2, BALTADAPT3 and BalticClimate4. In addition, institutions from the Nordic countries are involved in various other nationally funded research projects and programmes5 in which the respective actors cooperate and exchange knowledge. These networks are considered important and fruitful. The West Nordic countries also meet within the Arctic Council6 where adaptation to climate change is being addressed in the Working Group on the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME).
Climate change adaptation work on the Nordic level
Climate change adaptation, as a cross cutting theme often considered within the responsibilities of the Ministry for Environment or the equivalent, is also of particular interest to e.g. the Council of Ministers for Fisheries and Aquaculture, Agriculture, Food and Forestry (MR-FJLS), Environment (MR-M), Education and Research (MR-U) and Business, Energy & Regional Policy (MR-NER). The Committees of Senior Officials (CSO), under the different themes of the Minister Councils (MR), is the operational level of the NCM and forms a decisive platform for cooperation on specific policy areas. For example, an informal meeting was held in November 2010 where the Nordic ministers responsible for national and regional planning adopted an action plan 2011-2014 in which sustainable urban development and adaptation to climate change is a prioritised theme.
As a part of the CSO, permanent or temporary Nordic Working Groups for e.g. Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy or global climate negotiations play an important role in ongoing discussions and climate work. The Working Group for the exchange of experience and knowledge development (Urban Policies) under the Committee of Senior Officials for Regional Policy (EK-R) addresses climate change adaptation in Nordic urban areas. From the research aspect, a joint approach to climate change adaptation already exists. Established by the NCM, the NordForsk organisation provides funding for cooperative research on adaptation through two programmes: (1) the Top-level Research Initiative with its sub-programme: Effect studies and adaptation to climate change and (2) Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation in Nordic Primary Industries. Here, a number of research projects are currently ongoing to support the Nordic countries in addressing climate change and potential challenges.
A common adaptation strategy for the Nordic Region?
In a series of interviews with national officials and researchers, both the need for strategic cooperation on climate change adaptation research and the importance of the exchange of experiences regarding the implementation of adaptation measures among the Nordic countries were emphasised. Despite differences in the impacts of climate change, population size, economic structure and challenges, several points were put forward as essential issues and opportunities, they include:
General arguments for a joint approach to climate change adaptation centre on not only the opportunity for mutual research and learning but also on historical and geographical commonalities and similar legal frameworks which ease cooperation between Nordic countries even on planning issues. A consensual common strategy could even encourage transnational learning between Nordic countries that have not yet cooperated on climate change adaptation thus contributing to the overcoming of local conditions that may hamper successful adaptation work such as the lack of financial resources, expertise and labour. Furthermore, a common database is needed that renders information and data on climate change impacts and adaptation more easily accessible and provides appropriate tools for further study.
At a more detailed level, a potential joint strategy at the Nordic level would help to raise awareness and communicate the breadth and seriousness of climate change to different administrative levels and the general public. As governmental bodies are able to carry out cross-sectoral analysis within their respective countries, one possible form of cooperation at the Nordic level would be to take advantage of this expertise. A clear advantage is also seen regarding the exchange of certain experiences such as „adaptation cost assessment‟ especially between EU and non-EU countries in the Nordic Region. The EU has extensive experience of different types of projects concerning adaptation and has overseen work on the issue of the statistics of adaptation costs which is integral to the member countries if they are to apply for funding to work on adaptation.
According to the interviewees, the Nordic Council of Ministers could be a potential facilitator here as it is perceived as having the resources, information (including contact details) and data available to coordinate a joint strategic approach to climate change adaptation. Research programmes (such as NordForsk), ongoing projects and the Nordic Working Groups that already exist under the NCM could serve as a starting point. However, a common strategy would need to take into account the different local circumstances and needs to ensure a sense of ownership. As one of the respondents stated, it will not make sense "if we do not feel at home in the strategy".
Potential added values
A joint Nordic approach to climate change adaptation in the form of a common strategy could create the following added value for the region:
While coordinating adaptation efforts that are taken at all levels in the Nordic countries, the strategy could represent the long-term perspective that is needed when addressing climate change and could support climate change adaptation on its way into all levels, sectors and institutions, i.e. "mainstreaming adaptation" (Nilsson 2010).
A possible strategy could function as a guiding framework and action plan for the highly complex issue of climate change adaptation by providing guidance 'from above' (top-down approach) and illuminating local examples 'from below' (bottom-up approach). Moreover, the strategy could play an important role as knowledge broker between science (e.g. climate models and data) and practice (e.g. implementation of adaptation measures).
The strategy could also provide data and tools for climate change adaptation work at the regional level where potential Nordic cooperation could make a difference compared to those efforts currently taking place e.g. only at the national level, as it would have a larger volume of impact around policy development. A joint approach to climate change adaptation could also strengthen the Nordic position towards other regions (e.g. Baltic Sea Region) and countries (e.g. Russia).
Who could facilitate such efforts?
The Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM) is well placed to facilitate cooperation between the Nordic countries. The strategic position of the NCM provides both a good overview of numerous actions at different policy levels in various policy fields and on how to connect and align these dispersed activities according to the specific needs of the region. As climate change adaptation is a cross-cutting issue, a common strategy could link the issues that are of relevance in each policy field. Facilitated by the Nordic Council of Ministers, the strategy could ease and encourage cross-border cooperation and transnational learning by providing a discussion forum and focal point for all relevant national authorities and policy units. A possible joint strategy on climate change adaptation could be elaborated within the Committees of Senior Officials with input from the Nordic Working Groups: a new CSO focusing on climate change adaptation could be established or an already existing CSO could incorporate adaptation into their activities. For instance, the Committee of Senior Officials for Regional Policy (EK-R) could initiate a Nordic climate change adaptation strategy given the fact that adaptation to a changing climate is an issue that usually calls for the implementation of adaptation measures at the regional or local level and should thus be addressed within the broader context of Regional Policy.
Acknowledgement
The article is based on a literature review and telephone interviews conducted during March and April 2011 and complemented by e-mail communication (June 2010) with national actors from four Nordic countries and two autonomous areas. [repeated above] The authors would like to thank José Sterling who produced the map as well as Lisa Van Well, Klaus Georg Hansen and Ole Damsgaard for their valuable input and comments.
1 Programme area: Denmark, Germany, Poland, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Sweden and Norway.
2 BaltCICA project: Climate Change: Impacts, Costs and Adaptation in the Baltic Sea Region, http://www.baltcica.org/
3 BALTADAPT project: Baltic Sea Region Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, http://www.baltadapt.eu
4 BalticClimate project: Baltic challenges and chances for local and regional development generated by Climate Change, http://www.balticclimate.org
5 Project example: NordKlim-Adapt project: http://www.smhi.se/hfa_coord/nordklim/index.php?page=about
6 Member states: Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway,
the Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States of America
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